The following is an Encore presentation of Everything Everywhere Daily. In the year '79, Mount Vesuvius, a volcano located east of the modern day city of Naples, erupted. Vesuvius had erupted before, but this eruption was different. It ejected an enormous amount of ash, which completely buried several towns and cities below the mountain. Almost 2,000 years later, the largest of those cities, Pompeii, was rediscovered, and when archeologists found revolutionized our understanding of the ancient world. Learn more about the destruction and rediscovery of Pompeii on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily. Hey, everyone. This is Gary. If you're listening to this podcast, you clearly are someone who likes to learn every day. And if you want to add a little more learning into your everyday routine, check out Ted Talks Daily, the podcast that brings you a new Ted Talk every weekday. In less than 15 minutes a day, you'll hear about some of the big ideas shaping our world. This includes everything from artificial intelligence to the search for dark matter and more. Listen to Ted Talks Daily wherever you get your podcast. I've been asked why I talk so much about ancient Rome, and there are two answers to that question.

The first is that Rome had an inordinate amount of influence on the Western world, which can still be felt today. Everything from our alphabet or the months of the year all come from Rome. Perhaps more importantly, we just know a lot more about Rome than we do about other ancient cultures. The Romans meant it to build in stone rather than wood, so we have more ruins. We have many texts and full books which were written by Romans, which is much more than we have from many other ancient civilizations. However, we also have something else, a singular archeological discovery of an entire Roman city that was better preserved than anything else from the ancient world, Pompei. Pompei had its start in the seventh century BC as a Greek colony. Located on the Bay of Naples, it was frequented by Greek and Phenitian sailors. It later became an Etruscan city and then was settled by the Sammonites, a people living on the Italian peninsula. After the Romans defeated them in the Sammonite Wars, the city came under Roman control and influence. It became a popular city. Along with the nearby city of Neopolis, now called Naples, it was a resort city for elite Romans.

And not only that, the slopes of Mount Vesuvius was prime agricultural real estate due to its fertile volcanic soils, and it was well known for its vineyards. Mount Vesuvius is a stratovolcano that was created in the collision of the European and African tectonic plates. It's part of a much larger volcanic region in Italy that includes other famous volcanoes such as Mount Etna and Stromboli. Vesuvius has been active ever since humans inhabited the area. Throughout the centuries, the mountain has erupted, and on several occasions, there were even eruptions larger than what occurred in the year 79, including one massive eruption about 4,000 years ago. In the year 79, Titus was the Emperor of Rome. Pompei was a thriving port city of about 12,000 people with neighboring villages in the vicinity. The eruption of Vesuvius wasn't a sudden thing that took everyone by surprise. There had been earthquakes for several years leading up to the eruption. The date when the eruption began is often listed as August 24, '79, but there is some debate as to the exact date. It could possibly have happened in September or October. Much of what we know of the eruption came from the writings of Pliny the Younger.

He was a Roman magistrate who wrote many letters which survived. He was raised by his uncle Pliny the elder who died in the eruption. He witnessed the eruption from the town of Messinum, 29 kilometers or 18 miles from Vesuvius, across the Bay of Naples. The eruption began around 1:00 PM, with a column of smoke and ash rising out of the volcano and Pommas raining down all over the region. This lasted for about 18 hours, and it gave most of the residents of Pompeii and the surrounding region time to flee. One of the common misconceptions people have about Pompeii is that everybody died in the eruption. Based on the number of bodies discovered, it's likely that most of the population managed to escape, and most people probably managed to escape with some money and jewelry. At some point the next day, either at night or in the early morning, pyroclastic flows began to come down the mountain. Here I need to explain exactly what a pyroclastic flow is because it's truly terrifying. A pyroclastic flow is an incredibly hot cloud of gas and ash that comes from a volcano at incredibly high speeds. And by hot, I mean temperatures of a thousand degrees celsius or 1800 degrees Fahrenheit.

And by high speeds, I mean they can reach speeds up to 700 km/hour or 430 km/ hour. It was the pyroclastic flows that killed everyone in Pompeii. And it wasn't a pleasant death. It was quick, but it was not pleasant. When the superheated gasses hit people, their soft tissues would have vaporized instantly. One body found in Pompeii literally had its brain matter turned into a glassy substance. Some people near the shore were trapped in stone buildings and were baked alive from the heat. Over the next several hours, the super hot gas and ash piled up all over the city. When the eruption finally ended, survivors went to see what they could salvage, but they couldn't find anything other than the tops of a few buildings. The entire city was gone, having been buried by Vesuvius. It wasn't just Pompei, which disappeared. The nearby town of Herculeinaum was gone, as well as all of the surrounding villas and their vineyards and fields. Pompei wasn't forgotten. The Emperor sent two former consuls to Pompei to assist the survivors and devoted large sums of money to their help. He later visited the site himself. However, there were no efforts made at excavation recovery.

Some thief dug into buildings and stole statues and other valuables, but that was it. Over the next several hundred years, there were more eruptions that buried Pompei even deeper. Pompei was remembered as something in history, but the exact location of the city ultimately was lost. Fast forward about 1,500 years. There were people who made limited discoveries in Pompeii. In 1592, one architect who was building an underground aqueduct discovered a building with paintings on the walls. There were other very limited excavations of single buildings in 1689 and 1693. However, the discovery which really changed everything took place in 1738. The foundations for a palace for Charles Bourbon, the King of Naples, was being built when they happened upon the ruins of the nearby town of Herculinaum. The king was very interested in the discoveries. The high quality of the finds actually gave prestige to Naples. They didn't actually know what they had found initially. They just knew it was Roman ruins. And this resulted in continued excavations for the next several decades. In 1763, the ruins were finally identified as the Lost City of Pompei. The first proper excavation were begun by the Swiss architect, Carl Weber, in 1749.

Limited excavations continued for several decades. When Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy, he seized the land and employed 700 workers to work on the excavation. The early excavation efforts were not as professional and painstaking as modern archeology is, and they ended up causing a great deal of damage to many of the buildings. The earliest digs at the site were focused on collecting artifacts, not preserving the structures that were found. But as excavations continued through the 19th and early 20th centuries, many modern archeology techniques were developed at Pompei. Over time, as more and more discoveries were made, Pompei provided a glimpse into the ancient world like no other archeological find in history. In the 19th century, the lead archeologist Giuseppe Furarelli made an astonishing discovery. They would periodically come across empty spaces in the ash. He eventually realized that these gaps were the spaces left by decomposed remains of people. He developed a technique whereby they would inject plaster into the spaces. By doing so, they could capture the positions that the people were in when they were overcome by hot ash and died. Another thing that was discovered were original scrolls at a private library in a villa in Herculinaum.

Scrolls being written on inorganic matter are something from the ancient world which are almost never found. When they are, they're usually found in extremely dry environments like in Egypt or Israel. The Herculinaum scrolls were often carbonized from the heat and so bridal that if attempts were made to unroll them, they would disintegrate. Researchers have finally figured out how to read the scrolls without damaging them. By using a technique called X-ray phase contrast tomography, they are able to scan individual layers of the scroll and decipher what was written on the pages. Artwork can be found in most of the dwellings. These include paintings on the walls and mosaics on the floors. The paintings show just how colorful and decorated even some modest Roman homes were. Many of the mosaics and paintings show an incredible amount of talent. An entire amphitheater and forum has been on Earth, as have some of the city walls and all of the stone streets, which are still in pristine condition. Perhaps the biggest discoveries to come out of Pompei have been the little things. So much of Roman history has to do with emperors, generals, or other historical figures. Pompei showed how regular people live their day-to-day lives.

For example, in the streets, you can see the wheel ruts, which were used by wagons. But of even more interest are the stepping stones that periodically go across the street. The streets were often filled with water and filth at that time, so crossing the street would mean getting dirty. So there were stepping stones on each block to let you cross without getting wet. There was also a great deal of graffiti which has been all over Pompeii. The nature of the graffiti is as varied as the people who live there. One man wrote, Gaius Pumitius Dilfius was here and left a date that corresponds to October third, '78. Another was a dedication of Love, which read, Health to you, Victoria, and wherever you are, may you sneeze sweetly. Another is an insult that said, One speaks of sheep-faced Lyneus strutting about like a peacock and giving himself heirs on the strength of his good looks. Yet another was a memorial to a friend, which read, Purus to his chum, Kias, I'm sorry to hear you are dead, and so goodbye. There were also many political campaign slogans written all over town. One of them was, Marcus Serenius for eight aisle.

Some people love him, some are loved by him. I can't stand him. Pompei also had brothels that were discovered. In the name of keeping the show family-friendly, I'll simply say that the artwork inside could be used as a menu of the services provided. Likewise, there are also symbols carved into buildings along the streets, pointing the way to the establishment. Not everything in Pompeii has been excavated. The unexcavated parts are slowly being uncovered and new discoveries are still being made. One of the most recent discoveries was that of the Thermapoleium in 2020, which was a Roman fast food stand. In 2021, an entire ceremonial chariot was discovered. While the ash that covered Pompeii did a masterful job of preserving everything, Once the site was excavated, everything was now exposed to the elements, and this resulted in many buildings starting to decay. And one of the biggest projects at Pompeii now is protecting what has been unearthed. Plants have taken root in many of the buildings, and exposure to rain has weakened some of the walls which have caused some of them to collapse. So most activity in Pompeii today is aimed at preservation, not new excavation.

Pompeii is, without question, the greatest archeological site in the world. There is nowhere else on the planet, where so much has been preserved so well. Given the unique circumstances surrounding the quick burial of the city, it's unlikely that we'll ever find something like Pompeii again. I should note that Mount Vesuvius is still there, and it is still an active volcano. The last eruption occurred in 1944, but that isn't very long in volcanic terms. It literally could start erupting again tomorrow. I've personally been to Pompeii twice, and to be honest, I could easily go several more times. It's an entire city, and it's difficult to see everything in a single visit. Despite my two visits, I haven't gotten to Herculeinaum, which is still high in my to-do list. In addition to just walking the streets of Pompeii and seeing the well-preserved buildings, there's also a museum on site where you can see many of the artifacts which have been recovered, as well as the plastered cast of the people who were found in the ash. If you're ever in Italy, I highly recommend making a special trip to see it. It is the closest you can come to experiencing what everyday life was like for someone living in ancient Rome 2000 years ago.

The executive producer of Everything Everywhere Daily is Charles Daniel. The associate producers are Benjie Long and Cameron Kiever. I want to give a big shout out to everyone who supports the show over on Patreon, including the show's producers. Your support helps me put out a show every single day. And also, Patreon is currently the only place where Everything Everywhere Daily merchandise is available to the top tier of supporters. If you'd like to talk to other listeners of the show and members of the Completionist Club, you can join the Everything Everywhere Daily Facebook group or Discord server. Links to everything are in the show notes.